Every firm converts inputs (land, labor, capital, technology) into output. Managers must decide the best combination of inputs, the level of output to produce, and how to control cost. Production analysis explains how output changes when inputs change, and cost analysis explains how production decisions translate into cost.
This chapter is asked frequently:
Production is the process of transforming inputs into output to satisfy wants.
A production function shows the relationship between inputs and output:
Manager’s view:
This difference is important because laws of production and cost behave differently.
Consider labor as the variable input:
Typical relationship:
Also called law of diminishing returns (short run). It states: “When more and more units of a variable factor are applied to a fixed factor, total product increases at first at an increasing rate, then at a diminishing rate, and eventually may decline.”
Why it happens:
Using TP/AP/MP:
Returns to scale occurs when all inputs are increased proportionately:
These explain the U-shape of long-run average cost.
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For a variable input like labor (L):
Thus, TP is total, AP is per-unit average, and MP is additional output.
The law of variable proportions states that when a variable factor is increased with a fixed factor, output rises at first but later MP falls.
Reasons for diminishing MP (any three):
Hence, after optimum use of fixed input, additional labor adds less output.
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Every firm converts inputs (land, labor, capital, technology) into output. Managers must decide the best combination of inputs, the level of output to produce, and how to control cost. Production analysis explains how output changes when inputs change, and cost analysis explains how production decisions translate into cost.
This chapter is asked frequently:
Production is the process of transforming inputs into output to satisfy wants.
A production function shows the relationship between inputs and output:
Manager’s view:
This difference is important because laws of production and cost behave differently.
Consider labor as the variable input:
Typical relationship:
Also called law of diminishing returns (short run). It states: “When more and more units of a variable factor are applied to a fixed factor, total product increases at first at an increasing rate, then at a diminishing rate, and eventually may decline.”
Why it happens:
Using TP/AP/MP:
Returns to scale occurs when all inputs are increased proportionately:
These explain the U-shape of long-run average cost.
Actual cash payment:
Imputed cost of owned resources:
Value of next best alternative:
These concepts are useful in managerial decision making and economic profit.
Short run costs:
As output increases:
Average costs:
Marginal cost:
Key relationship:
Why U-shape occurs:
Graph logic:
In the long run, firms can change plant size. LAC is derived as an envelope of short-run AC curves.
Meaning:
Managers use these concepts to:
Stage I (increasing returns) → Stage II (rational stage) → Stage III (negative MP)
If MC < AC → AC falls
If MC = AC → AC minimum
If MC > AC → AC rises
If these notes helped you, a quick review supports the project and helps more students find it.
Production function shows how output depends on inputs.
In the short run, at least one input is fixed. When we increase only the variable input (say labor), the law of variable proportions operates.
Increase variable input (L)
↓
TP rises fast initially (better utilization)
↓
TP rises slowly (diminishing MP)
↓
TP may fall (negative MP)
Key points for exam:
Thus, the production function and returns to a factor explain how output behaves when inputs change in the short run.